Friends , I present to you the salint features of the Story of Modern Philosophy , a product of my research work , like my previous stories on Medieval & Renaissance Philosophy . I have tried to simplify this story for the benefit of my readers , leaving out many minor details . Hope you enjoy reading the same . Sorry for the length !
STORY OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY IN VERSE: PART-I
STORY OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY
IN VERSE :
PART - I
BY
**RAJ NANDY**
INTRODUCTION
Having narrated the story of Ancient Greek Philosophy
in Verse ,
Followed by Medieval Philosophy along with the Story
of Italian Renaissance ,
I proceed to narrate the story of Modern Philosophy ,
Which also occupies an interesting part of History !
Background :
More than two and a half millennium have past since
the innovative Greeks , -
Gave birth to Philosophy by separating it from ancient
mythical traditions ,
By seeking rational and natural explanations, with their
keen power of observation !
Their sheer love of knowledge led them to this noble
venture ,
As lovers of wisdom they gave birth to the subject of
‘philosophia’! (‘phil’= love & ‘sophy’= wisdom)
Thales during 6th Century BC, accurately predicted an
eclipse of the sun ,
And declared that all life forms, in a simplified form ,
from water had begun !
‘All things from water did evolve and with time in
water shall dissolve !’- Thales
And this speculation of Thales had to wait for twenty
four centuries ,
To blossom as the Evolutionary Theory of Charles
Darwin in his ‘Origin of Species’ !
Thales is considered to be the Father of Western
Philosophy ,
Who had displayed a rare scientific bent of mind ,
In an era when astronomy, biology and natural science
never existed separately,
But was included under one single nomenclature termed
‘Philosophy’ !
It was the pioneering zeal of Aristotle during the fourth
century BC ,
That initially separated science from philosophy ,
While establishing the science of Logic, Biology and
Zoology ;
And also greatly influencing both Medieval and Early
Modern Philosophy !
Early modern philosophy is said to be an outgrowth of the
spirit and work of Roger Bacon , Duns Scotus and William
Ockham of the Medieval Age ,
Who dared to embark on independent inquiry concerning
truth and life as Philosophy’s sage ;
Rejecting authority of tradition in their quest for meaning
of nature, truth, and experience ,
Thereby igniting Modern Philosophy’s eternal quest !
Discovery of Heliocentric System :
The Polish astronomer Copernicus , the German Kepler,
and Italian Galileo,
With their scientific discoveries and mathematical
calculations ,
Dislodged both Earth and Aristotle from their pre-eminent
position ;
By replacing Ptolemy’s geocentric system with heliocentric
model of planetrary rotation !
But without the telescope Aristotle’s astronomy went astray ,
And without the microscope his biology had remained
incomplete during his day !
But despite these 'blind spots' in Aristotle’s philosophy ,
He remains as the pioneer and driving force behind
the establishment of modern science ;
As Renan the French scholar summed it up by saying , -
“Socrates gave philosophy to mankind and Aristotle
science”!
Contribution of Islamic Civilization :
This story of philosophy however remains incomplete,
without mentioning the contribution of Arabs of Spain ,
Who translated the works of Aristotle and the Greek
scholars, thereby preserving the same ;
When after the fall of the Roman Empire , the invading
barbaric tribes invading Europe made ‘darkness reign’ !
The commentaries made by those Islamic scholars along
with their Arabic translations ,
Was followed up by their various scientific discoveries
and experimentations ;
Which further advanced Philosophy’s quest adding a
new dimension !
Periodization and Scope of Work :
Modern Philosophy is not a doctrine or a separate school
of philosophy ,
The nomenclature helps to distinguish this period from
earlier Greek and Medieval philosophy ;
While it has become customary to refer to the philosophy
of the Renaissance prior to Rene Descartes, as Early
Modern Philosophy !
The history of Modern Philosophy begins with Descartes
traditionally ,
Ending with the Austrian born Wittgenstein , which is also
termed as Contemporary Philosophy ,
Covering a period from the 17th Century to the early
20th Century .
This period again gets followed by Postmodern Philosophy !
However, I must caution my readers that it is not always
possible to provide firm cut-off dates ,
As events in history do overlap, as they gradually take
shape !
However I do endeavor to cover the salient features ,
for the benefit of my readers , -
From the early days of Modern Philosophy till the
Postmodern Era .
EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY
The philosophy of ‘Humanism’ during the Renaissance ,
Greatly encouraged individualism and freedom of secular
thought !
Early modern philosophy owed much to this freedom of
thought and expression ,
Which during the Medieval Era was ruthlessly suppressed
by the Church with condemnation !
The medieval mind lay confined to thoughts of salvation
and after-life ;
The Revelation and the ecclesiastical dogmas could
never be questioned or denied !
To do so was heretical and lead to condemnation ,
Even to banishment and ultimate excommunication !
Thus the earliest free thinking philosophers with a
scientific bent of mind ,
Were hesitant to publish their work during their lifetime !
The sun-centered solar system of Copernicus was published
after his death ,
While BRUNO , who supported Copernicus openly, was
burnt alive at the stakes !!
Early modern philosophy therefore had a tortuous birth ,
Let us now remember some of its early stalwarts !
Some Early Modern Philosophers :
The Renaissance was a period of rediscovery of ancient
Greek and Roman culture ,
Which inspired the creation of new art and architecture !
Though the period was not congenial for creation of new
systems of philosophy ,
Yet in it lay latent the seeds , which later blossomed
into Modern Philosophy !
Nicolus Cusa , Marsilo Ficino , Pico Della Mirandola ,
Were all notable Platonists from the Renaissance Era ;
Not forgetting the Dominican philosopher Tommaso
Campanella !
The pro-Aristotle Alexandrian School was led by Pietro
Pomponazzi ,
And there was also the political philosopher and theorist, -
called Machiavelli !
NICOLUS OF CUSA (1401-1464) :
Nicolas from Germany became a cardinal of the Catholic
Church ,
And during the 15th Century was considered as a
Polymath !
He wrote on judicial , theological, philosophical and
scientific subjects ;
And became famous for his work titled - “On Learned
Ignorance” !
This was a mystical discourse on the Infinite and the
Finite ,
With his metaphysical observations, Nicholas was much
ahead of his time !
Before Copernicus he had proposed that the earth was
not at the center ,
And the planetary motions were not circular, as later
proved by Kepler !
His philosophy was inspired by Plato and the Neo-
platonists Plotinus and Proclus ,
And Anslem’s notion of God as the ‘Absolute Maximus’!
From the Medieval philosopher Ramon Lull came the idea
of infinite as the joining of beginning , middle and end ;
All these influences surfaced in his work “On Learned
Ignorance”!
In God the opposites of identity and difference coincide ;
And a given length of the circumference becomes less
and less curved ,
To coincide with a straight line as a Circle increases in
size !
The universe is a harmony of plurality in unity, as all
things are contained or ‘folded’ in His necessity ;
God is also the ultimate sense of ‘unfolding’ multiplicity
and possibility !
The highest level of knowledge is attained by human
intellect ,
Which bypasses all oppositions - to God comprehend !
But as finite beings we can only know Him in a negative
way ,
Recognizing both our limitations and God’s infinity and
transcendence, - as Nicholas says;
Therefore our knowledge of God remains imperfect
in this state of ‘learned ignorance’ !
Nicholas is said to be the first to use concave lenses
to cure myopia ,
And Georg Cantor’s work on ‘Infinity’ in the 1870s, -
was inspired by Nicholas of Cusa !
Marsillo Ficino (1433-1499) :
History of 15th century Renaissance credits him as
Plato’s translator ,
And Ficino is generally overlooked as a philosopher !
Born in the Republic of Florence , he had mastered Greek
at an early age ,
Translated Homer, Hesoid, Plato, Plutonius and Proclus ,
under Cosimo de Medici’s patronage !
He produced the earliest complete translation of Plato
into a Western tongue ;
Described as hunchbacked, lisping, prone to melancholy,
Being born under the planetary sign Saturn !
Both a philosopher and an astrologer of repute in his
days ,
Established the Platonic Academy in 1462 in the Medici
Villa , under Cosimo’s patronage !
His passion for the recovery of classical culture and texts
of antiquity ,
And the integration of Plato’s philosophy with Christian
theology ,
Remains as his greatest contribution to Western Philosophy!
Pico Della Mirandola (1463-1494):
The most popular and the most read of philosophers
of the Renaissance Era ,
Was this intellectual giant Pico Mirandola !
His work synthesizes all the strains of Renaissance
philosophy ;
Includes Neoplatonism, Humanism, Aristotelianism,
Averroism and Mysticism , - as synthetic philosophy !
The true spirit of Renaissance humanism is epitomized
in his - “Oration on the Dignity of Man”,
Written in 1486 , from where Pico’s popularity began !
This ‘Oration’ was planned as a preface to his massive
compendium on the intellectual achievements of
humanity,
But failed to materialize as Pico died rather early !
For the Neoplatonists, all creation had emerged from
God through a process of ‘emanation’,
But Pico approached this problem of one and many -
as God’s symbols !
All objects, human thought, speech, religion , etc, were
images of God and expression of God as the' One' ;
And the Medieval belief that God can be known only
in a negative way, - Pico had shun !
Pico held everything that human beings can think,
imagine or express, are expressions of divinity ;
And this concept greatly influenced High Renaissance
art, literature and creativity !
The artists like Michael Angelo felt that through the
operation of their intellect and creation ,
They were giving expression to likeness of the divine ,
which was also Pico’s notion !
In the traditional Christian hierarchy of the universe , -
Humanity remains in the center of the spiritual and the
physical worlds ;
Pico unhinged humanity from its central position ,
Exalting it in the chain of being with freedom of action !
Humans can become low as an animal as per his choosing ;
Or through the exercise of his intellect and imagination , -
become God-like in understanding !
Pico observed that since nothing in human history ever
remains stable or unchanged ,
So the greatest dignity of humanity is in the boundless
power of self-transformation and change !
While the greatest freedom granted by God is the
freedom of free inquiry ,
And this generated the scientific temperament giving
rise to Modern Philosophy !
This assertion of Pico had become the basis of modern
world view ,
And became the starting point of philosophy of Nietzsche ,
Marx, Kierkegaard and the Existentialists, -
Just to mention a few !
Pietro Pomponazzi (1462–1525) :
Unlike the Platonist and the Neoplatonists, this Italian
born Pomponazzi ,
Was a leading Aristotelian scholar , belonging to the
Alexandrian group of philosophy .
He studied philosophy and medicine in the University
of Padua, and in 1487 became a doctor !
From 1495 to 1509 occupied the chair of Natural
Philosophy in Padua ;
And later as a professor at Ferrara lectured on the
treaties of Aristotle on the soul –‘De anima’ !
He finally settled in Bologna where his most important
works were composed ,
And in 1516 wrote his controversial work - “On the
Immortality of the Soul”!
In conformity with the Alexandrian School of Aristotelian
thought ,
The material soul cannot be immortal Pomponazzi taught !
The immortality of the soul taught by dogma and faith ,
Cannot be proved by Aristotelian doctrine or by reason , -
Pomponazzi had said !
This had serious impact on morality and ethics,
Since people required motivation to perform pious and
good deeds ;
With promise of reward and punishment in an afterlife ,
As preached by the Church for goodness to thrive !
The Church tried to condemn Pomponazzi as he had
stirred up the hornet’s nest ;
So he issued a clarification where he subsequently said ,
That those who live a true philosopher’s life , -
Could understand and distinguish between virtue and
vice !
He extolled the Stoic philosophy which claimed , -
The Law of Nature was God’s material presence, in the
universe as cosmic reason !
Stoic God was the indwelling order of the cosmos ;
While the God of Christianity was all powerful ,
merciful and good ,
Yet puzzlingly not able to block evil as He should !
His rational treaties ‘On Incantations’ and ‘De facto’,
on 'miracles' and 'fate' respectively ,
Fortunately for him was published posthumously !
Pomponazzi is said to have made peace with the
Church towards his later life ,
And continued to hold the chair at the University of
Bologna , as long as he survived !
Dear readers, before I conclude Part-One, I want to
mention the rebel philosopher Giordano Bruno ;
And in Part-Two , I shall cover the rise of science
with Kepler, Newton and Galileo !
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) :
When the 12th century French philosopher Peter Abelard
exclaimed , “By doubting we come to enquiry ; by
enquiring we perceive the truth” ,
Europe had heard the voice of a farseeing revolutionary ,
Who had echoed the spirit behind Modern Philosophy !
But this spirit became more pronounced in none other
than Bruno ,
Who after Socrates, became the second greatest martyr
of Philosophy as we know !
Born in 1548 in Nola, then under the kingdom of Naples,
as Filippo Bruno ,
Entered the Dominican order at seventeen taking the name
of Giordano !
Defended the Arian heresy and the banned writings of the
Dutch Humanist Erasmus !
Erasmus claimed that all sound learning is secular, and
that monasticism is not piety ;
Better education and a reformed Church would salvage
Christianity !
Bruno’s Cosmology was influenced by Nicholas of Cusa
on plurality of the worlds,
And he is best known as a proponent of the infinity of
the universe !
This thought of infinity was one of the stimulating ideas
of the Renaissance ,
Where the universe was no longer a 15th century backyard
of the Gods ;
But had suddenly become too vast to be ruled by a 15th
century God !
Bruno tried to imagine a God whose majesty should
magnify the majesty of the stars;
Going beyond the cosmological model of Copernicus ,
In conceptualizing the universe as a continuum , -
With the stars identical in nature with the sun !
Bruno refuted Aristotle’s fixed hierarchal system since
there were no fixed position in space ;
And with nature renewing itself , there was no room for
divine creation or last judgment - he had said !
God and Nature was one , and not distinct as taught by the
Book of Genesis !
For the next sixteen years of his life Bruno traveled over
half of Europe as an intellectual recluse ,
But his two years in England were the most fruitful !
For there he composed his important works including
the one ‘On Infinite Universe and the Worlds’;
Much to the annoyance of the Catholic Church !
During his last seven years he remained imprisoned by
the Roman Inquisition ;
Charged with heresy, atheism and other false accusations !
Bruno refused to recant and boldly faced his tormentors ,
And was burnt alive at the stakes to become Philosophy’s
martyr !
The English poet Coleridge refers to Bruno’s works as
‘portraits of a vigorous mind , struggling after truth amid
many prejudices of his time’ !
Today his statue faces the Vatican perhaps questioning
the Church ;
For his violent death still haunts the corridors of the
Catholic Church !
With Bruno dear readers I conclude Part One of my
Introduction to Modern Philosophy ,
In Part Two - I shall cover the rise of science and
Modern Philosophy .
Thanks for reading patiently , - Raj Nandy !
**ALL COPYRIGHTS WITH THE AUTHOR**
Impressive...continuing to part 2
This is a good account of your research work on the history of modern philosophy...but to be frank, in my opinion, this study relates to only one part-western-as you classify it modern...Vedic Philosophy teaches everything what modern philosophers have since enunciated...I request you to channel out your profound enthusiasm in the study and analysis of Vedic Philosophy which fathers all the modern philosophical and scientific notions evolved till date
I have to agree with C.P's comments, you have become a great educator Raj. One comment on Coleridge when he died he left 1000's of uncompleted poems. He was asked why he never completed some of his poems, in reply he said he could'nt as the right words never came. Thank you for the new knowledge you have me.
Raj sah'b. A great source of knowledge is your poem on modern philosophy. For the first time I could grasp the meaning of the word 'philosophy'. A great scholarly piece created by you in your inimitable style. Thanks for sharing.
Thanks Prof. CP Sharma ji, for your encouraging comments and time ! 'Google' has been kind to reflect my verse on their web site ! -Raj
Your poems walk with knowledge and wisdom. Every time, after reading your poem i find me a more knowledgeable person. This is a new gem from your treasure. Thank you, sir.
Well done on philosophy and a lot of work you have done we will be able to use your page for reference in the future, thanks for all your effort...regards