TRUE STORY OF ENGLISH -PART TWO : ANGLO-SAXONS AND OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
** Dear Readers, I am happy to inform that if you type the Title of this poem on Google Search, you will find that this composition has been reflected on their permanent web reference page ! **
STORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
AND LITERATURE IN VERSE
By Raj Nandy
**PART TWO**
THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
INTRODUCTION
Like a broad and expansive flowing river, English Language
and Literature is fed by rivulets of many tribes and races ;
Its tributaries fed by the native Celts, the Latin-speaking
Romans, the colonizing Saxons, the sea-roving Danes ;
And also the feudal barons from Normandy speaking
Norman French !
Each with his own language and literature, rich in its own
tradition and culture !
The earliest of English literature has a medley of legendry
folk heroes ;
From Beowulf and King Arthur, to Roland and Robin Hood,
- their legends flow !
Yet older than these tales are the ancient oral riddles and
charms with invocations to the earth and sky ;-
“Hal wes thu, Folde, fira moder !” ( Old Eng.)
“Hail to thee, Earth, thou mother of men!”
Somewhere down this expansive river assumes its own
individual identity,
When those obscure tributaries become difficult to trace ,
And English Language and Literature assumes its own
national uniqueness !
Today I shall relay the Anglo-Saxon Story ;
The coming of the colonizing Angles, Jutes and the Saxons;
Who came during the mid-5th Century, creating Britain’s
early linguistic history !
This also marks the beginning of the Old English Period ,
And the historic contribution of King Alfred the Great !
However the background to this Story is the Roman
conquest of Britain and the subsequent ‘Dark Ages’;
Which I shall briefly narrate for understanding of later
events !
Roman Conquest of Britain (43AD-410AD):
Julius Caesar’s two short forays into Britain, was to
teach those Gallic supporters a lesson ! (55&54; BC)
For during his long Gallic Wars those Gallic tribes,
Often crossed the Channel to regroup and recuperate
with the sympathizers within Briton’s Celtic tribes !
And a century later with Emperor Claudius’ persistence,
Taking thirty years to subdue stiff tribal resistance ;
The Roman Empire in Britain got established on the
Emperor’s insistence !
Roman interests being mainly commercial, and they had
failed to Latinize the native Britons ;
As they had done in Gaul, with Latin creating the French
Romance language later on !
Along with the Roman scribes came the Latin alphabets,
With which all Official requirements got met !
Latin was used by the clergy and the Church, and for all
intellectual pursuits ;
While the common people spoke their native Celtic dialects,
and Latin was not missed !
The Romans constructed durable roads and bridges,
cities and forts, without displacing the local tribes;
Built the city of London with a good harbor, making trade
and commerce thrive ;
Along with Roman Christianity, which continued even
later to survive !
During the early 5th Century when Rome was sacked by
the Gothic tribes and the Vandals,
The mighty Roman Empire began to crumble !
Roman legions left Britain as their very survival was
at stake ;
Leaving Britain undefended, with the Germanic tribes
knocking on Britain’s gates !
Only the Roman roads, Christianity, and a few Latin
loan-words had survived ;
And the untrained native population could hardly fight!
A few examples of early Latin loan-words prior to the
Anglo-Saxon invasion are words like ; -
Cup, kitchen, mill, wine and port ;
Coming from Latin ‘cupa’, ‘coquere’, ‘molina’, ‘vinum’,
and ‘portus’ respectively;
And after the Saxons were Christianized during the 6th and
the 7th Centuries, more Latin words crept in gradually !
Words like: – abbot, alter, angle, candle, deacon, demon,
hymn, mass, nun, pope, priest, psalm , relic, Sabbath,
temple and tunic ;
Their relationship with the church and clergy was not
difficult to seek !
It is true that Old English though a powerful language
was crude ;
And was influenced by sophisticated intellectual words
from Latin roots !
Yet Old English as a language was remarkably resilient .
Despite the onslaught of loan words from Latin and from
Nordic descent ,
It absorbed these new words while gradually evolving into
Middle English, and did not relent !
It was King Alfred who at the close of the 9th Century ,
By commissioning the ‘Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’ and
translating the Latin works of Gildas and the Venerable
Bede ;
Established the West Saxon dialect as the standard English
language !
King Alfred as the epitome of British resistance against the
Anglo-Saxons and later Danish invaders ,
Created a new sense of British identity, without the Roman
flavour !
The Dark Ages In Britain :
From the Roman departure till the arrival of Christianity ;
From early 5th Century till the later half of 6th Century AD,
There is an absence of written records of authenticity,
And an intellectual darkness prevails in British History !
Only the records of the Welsh monk Gildas and historian
Bede, during the 6th and the 8th centuries respectively,
Gives us some knowledge of early Britain’s History !
In Europe however this ‘darkness’ prevailed till the
beginning of the 15th Century and the commencement of
the Italian Renaissance;
In my Archive you may read this ‘Renaissance Story’ with
its interesting historical source !
In the north of present day Scotland lived two great poets;
Taliesin and Aneirin using language of the Old Welsh !
Their poems speak of exploits of Kings and warriors ,
Who fought heroically against the German invaders !
Aneirin’s poem was the first to mention the legendary
King Arthur , -
A King of paragon virtues who bravely fought the Saxon
intruders !
However it was only in the highly imaginative works of
Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12thcentury, and Sir Thomas
Mallory’s work ‘Morte d’Arthur’,
The Arthurian romances provided the basis for a whole
new impressive tradition of English Literature !
Coming of Christianity had overshadowed the indigenous
literary achievements of the age ,
As Latin became the Official language and prevailed !
This Vulgar Latin of the ancient Romans gave rise to
Spanish, French, Romanian, Italian and Portuguese ;
Collectively known today as the Romance Languages .
Anglo-Saxon Invasion And Old English :
The master English historian GM Trevelyan, prefers to call
it the ‘Nordic’ conquest !
The single word ‘Nordic’ embraced the German, Anglo-
Saxon, and the Scandinavian peoples of the 5th Century
he felt !
These Nordic invasions are considered to be more significant
than the Roman interlude, and the later Norman Conquest !
Because it caused the native Celts general displacement, -
From the richest agricultural districts of the island !
The native Celts were driven to Wales, Cornwall, Ireland,
and to the north western coast of France called Brittany ;
Where the Celtic dialects survived along with their own
identity !
The Romans had failed to Latinize the Celtic civilization ,
And the Normans despite their greater influence failed to
impose their Romance language on the English nation !
The evolution of Old English was partly influenced by
Latin borrowings and Christianization of the pagan Saxons;
However few modifications occurred during the late Seven
Hundreds following the Danish invasions !
The Danish conquerors of England during the 8th Century ,
Had settled with the Anglo-Saxons rather peacefully ;
As conquerors displaying magnanimity !
While those pagan Vikings destroyed the existing education
and culture,
But influenced the modification of the highly inflected Old
English and its grammatical structure !
Runic Alphabets:
Ancient Rune alphabets were used to write Old English
script initially,
Though not well suited for composing prose and poetry !
Without the later Latin’s soft edges and curves, Runes had
sharp edges and straight characters ,
Ideal for chiseled inscriptions on stones, on hilt of swords,
on coins, and painting on garments as protectors ;
For Runes were believed to have magical and protective
mystical charm for its users !
Each Rune alphabet had a separate meaning and a sound ;
Its first letter ‘fehu’ with an F-sound also meant ‘cattle’!
With 24 letters initially, and later extended to thirty three,
the Runic script did abound !
Runes are also called ‘FUTHRAK’ based on the first six
letters of its alphabets ;
They were later displaced by Latin when Latin words got
adopted as pronounced ,
For there were no letters then with a silent sound !
Danish Influence on Old English :
Following the Danish settlement Old English accepted
many loan words ;
An Englishman could not ‘thrive’, be ‘ill’, or ‘die’,-
without these Scandinavian words !
Linguists opine that Old English is the product of dialect
mixing of the Anglo-Saxons with the Danish invaders ;
When the vocabulary enriched itself with synonyms, -
As in the case of the following Anglo-Saxon /Old Norse
doublet words ;-
Rear/raise, carve/cut, craft/skill, no/nay, from/fro, and many
more !
Old English like classical Latin had many plural endings-
known as inflections,
But the Danish simplified system improved Old English
by adding “es” as endings creating regularization !
However plurals ox/oxen , foot/feet remained as exceptions !
Therefore when we come across the many later absurdities,
We must first patiently read the full English Language Story !
Old Norse had masculine, feminine, common and neuter genders;
But in Old English there were no common gender !
It had ‘wifmann’(woman) as masculine , and ‘maegden’(maiden)
as neuter gender !
While the main changes in Old English grammar occurred after
invasions by the Danes ;
Changes in vocabulary came only after the coming of the Normans !
Therefore the Old English of the epic ‘Beowulf’ becomes
impossible for us to read ;
And the first two lines of the ‘Lords’ Prayer’, our mind does tease !
“Faeder ure, Du De eart on heofunum,
Si pin nama gehal god”; - when translated reads , -
“Our father who art in heaven,
hallowed be thy name”!
The West Saxon Dialect of England :
Now skipping across several pages of Saxon History ,
Let me continue with the English Language Story .
The four main dialects of the Old English period were;
Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon .
The Northumbrian culture and language had dominated
during the 7th and 8th Centuries of the Anglo-Saxon Period,
But the Viking raids in the 9th Century brought it to an end !
Venerable Bede the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar of this age,
Was located in the Northumbrian monastery at Jarrow ;
These Viking raiders destroyed the monasteries and all the
libraries, to Britain’s great sorrow !
Later, portions of unconquered Marcia integrated with Kent ,
Thereby forming the great Kingdom of Wessex !
On the 23rd of April 871 AD, when Alfred became the
kingdom’s new King ;
After several clashes with the Danes, he created a separate
area for them, -
North of the river Humber called the ‘Danelaw’ ;
While Alfred reorganized his kingdom’s defenses, and law
and order did restore !
And after capture of London, Alfred became King of all
England, – minus the Danelaw ! (886AD)
As a leader of British resistance against the invading Danes ,
King Alfred had created a spirit of national unity,
And also inspired a new sense of British identity !
Using Mercian scholars and scribes, he translated earlier Latin
works of his age,
And commissioned the historic ‘Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’;
Making the West Saxon dialect as the literary language of
England !
Old English had began to appear written mostly in the West
Saxon dialect;
Which by the 10th Century became Britain’s Official language !
We owe this to the initiative of great King Alfred !
England gets its name from Old English “Engla land”, the
‘Land of the Angles’, a Germanic tribe,
Who had come from the Angelin peninsula in the Bay of Kiel
in the area of the Baltic Sea ;
The name got adopted in 887AD, as mentioned in the Oxford
English Dictionary !
Old English Literature :
Having gone through the history of English Language and
its origin ,
Till the end of the Old English Period and stopping short of
the Norman Conquest , -
Which marks the commencement of the Middle English Period;
I now briefly narrate the Story of Old English Literature ,
Mentioning mainly some of the salient features of its poetry
and prose ;
Along with some of their salient features .
Old English Literature covers a period of almost 600 years of
Anglo Saxon History ,
From the Mid- 5th Century till the Norman Conquest of
1066 AD !
Consists of Epic heroic poetry, sermons, Bible translations ,
riddles etc,
Contained in four hundred surviving fragmented manuscripts
written in Latin and in the vernacular !
This written form began in the aftermath of the Danish invasion;
With a lamentable drop in Latin literacy and general education !
When King Alfred restored the English language and culture ,
Through translations from the Latin works of Gildas and Bede;
Into the West Saxon dialect creating a body of independent
English Literature !
Old English Poetry:
Old English verse with its pagan tradition , had received its
stimulations from the continent of Scandinavian nations !
Initially, heroic verses were all composed extempore for oral
recitation,
By the tribal bards or minstrels who sang to entertain their
war Lords and kings;
Singing of warriors and their heroic deeds, much before the
advent of any written script !
These epic stories got written down initially between the
9th and the 11th centuries .
The first native maker of English verse being Caedmon ,
An illiterate cow-heard in the Abbey of Whitby of St Hilda,
Who was inspired in a dream vision to sing about the glories
of Creation ! (7thCentury)
The original nine alliterative lines of Caedmon remains
enshrined in the Lain works of Venerable Bede .
Bede also mentions the Christian poet Cynewulf, and the famous
religious poem of the period being “The Dream of the Rood”!
Lyrics as such do not form a part of Old English poetry ;
Though in ‘The Wanderer’ and ‘The Seafarer’, we find the
Lyric’s expressive personal emotion and melancholy !
Amongst the pre-Christian heroic poems perhaps the oldest
and the longest is the adventure of ‘Beowulf’;
Which has come down to us in its rare and complete form ;
A Scandinavian pagan epic with suspected Christian
interpolations made later on !
This great epic has long been included in the syllabus for
students of English Literature ;
I quote few translated lines to show its special features !
“Lo we, spear- Danes // in old (yore) – days
People – king // brave deeds have learned
How these thanes // valor framed.”
Observe the harshly consonantal chants of the Anglo-Saxon
language without end rhymes ;
To us appearing unmelodious and crude, but follows the chant
of the bard’s harp !
The double bar //called the caesura- indicate the singer’s pause,
Creating the verbal effect in the drowsy mead drinking hall !
The chanted words combined with music creating a rugged
beauty with auditory effect ;
For Epic poetry was composed to be Heard and not Read !
What Achilles is to the Greeks, Romulus to the Romans ,
Beowulf is to the Englishman !
Now cutting across several technicalities let me just mention ,
In meter Anglo-Saxon poetry is marked by accent and also
persistent alliteration !
This alliterative quality became an integral part of later English
poetry as we learn ,
When we read the lyrical poems of the master Charles Swinburne !
Old English Prose :
Prose unlike the verse was not used as an emotional stimulant,
but was for most part educational !
Prior to King Alfred we have the Latin prose of Gildas and
the Venerable Bede and a number of religious Homilies .
After the Vikings demolished the Northumbrian educational
centers and the libraries ,
Wessex took its place where Alfred pioneered the prose work
earnestly !
With the help of scholars he translated the Latin works of –
Pope Gregory, Roman Philosopher Boethius, Gildas and Bede;
While Alfred composed prose and verses for his people’s need !
Historical prose first began with the ‘Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’,
And English education and culture was revitalized by King
Alfred !
Summary and Conclusion :
Commencing with part one I have traced the Story of English
language and literature from its earliest days !
How the Celtic civilization prevailed despite the Roman
domination of four hundred years ;
But later displaced by the invading Anglo-Saxons between
the 5th and 11th centuries !
Saxon literacy spread only after their Christianization in the
7th Century;
Followed by the ravaging Viking raids from the 11th Century !
The Danes reshaped the History of Britain, but influenced the
modification of the highly inflected grammatical syntax
of the Anglo-Saxons !
Excluding the ‘Danelaw’, King Alfred united all of England,
Creating a corpus of independent English Literature , with the
West Saxon dialect revitalizing English culture !
Thus I conclude part two of my Story, thanking you for
reading it patiently !
In Part Three I shall narrate the Story of Middle English of
Chaucer and the Norman Conquest ;
When the English language went through a further period of
refinement and change !
All Copyrights for this composition are held by the author
Raj Nandy of New Delhi .
E-mail: rajnandy21@yahoo.in
Foot Notes :-
Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars took seven years (58 to 51 BC) to conquer the
valiant Gauls ,who during the Iron Age& Roman Era , occupied present day
France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland &Northern; Italy, East
of the Rhine River including parts of Netherlands & Germany ! But later Roman
conquest of Britain under Emperor Claudius took more than 30 years to subdue
the native Briton & the Celtic tribes ; when we have Bodecia, Queen of the
Iciny tribe, challenging the Roman might ! Roman were great builders & built
roads, harbours & cities for commercial interest & trade! Used the Latin
language for Official reasons ! Never tried to displace the local population but
employed them when required ! Irish Christianity was founded by St Patrick in the 5th century, a Roman Briton ;& predates Anglo-Saxon Christianity!We have
St David the patron saint of Wales in the 6th century; and also St Colombia in
Scotland ! Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine with 40 monks from Rome
to convert the pagan Anglo-Saxons , who landed in Kent in 597AD ...
(Not to be confused with St Augustine of Hippo of the 4th century ) This Roman
Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury & brought literacy to the
Anglo-Saxons ! GILDAS (516-570): a scholar , a preacher & teacher and a Catholic hermit, who wrote the post Roman History of Britain. He is quoted widely by the
Venerable BEDE (673-735), who wrote the ‘Anglo-Saxon History of the English
People’, his is the first work of History in which the AD System of dating is used !
BEOWULF composed between700 & 1000 AD contains 3182 lines ; a symbol of
antiquity with allusion which are Continental or Scandinavian ; original manuscript
kept in the British Museum ! King Alfred became king in April 871AD. After several
clashes with the Danes he defeated Danish Guthrum in May 878 and established a separate area called ‘Danelaw’-north of the line from London to Chester. Guthrum converted & Alfred kept London with him ! Alfred pioneered the formation of the English Navy to counter the Danish long boats ! He also set up the first public school in England with help of Mercian scholars & Alcuin of York ! Charlemagne, Emperor of the Frankish Empire had invited Alcuin of York to design the syllabus of his Palace School where we find the origin of the Seven liberal arts consisting of Trivium & Quadrivium !
**ALL COPYRIGHTS ARE HELD WITH THE AUTHOR RAJ NANDY**
Phew! (in a good sense) Dear Raj, this is simply mind blowing and so much to learn from your brilliant research.I am now gonna save it to my laptop.Thanks so much.
Wow. Very interesting and fascinating history of the English language, which reminds me of what seems to have been indicated regarding the American language, as being something of a melting pot collecting from other languages and morphing its own? Looks like its ancestral. Lengthy but rather enjoyable to read. Thanks for sharing what you've researched and learned..
Monumental research work. Priceless!
Hats off and a pricey haircut from me. This is treasure trove of research information.
raj ji... hats off... i can understand the patience and pain behind every word!
Fantastic work and so interesting to read, thanks Raj
A great work...in those times, you would have been the Venerable Bede himself with such care and attention to detail...
Google knows the real McCoy when it sees it, I have printed this and I like to read it on my lye-low in the garden...great work ...luvli I spell luvli as I say it in a deep Yorkshire accent which England has heaps of different accents ...now that's another kettle of fish , Thanks again and again...regards
Immense wealth of information .. thank you for sharing this ..
Raj, this is an amazing piece of research on the English language...Kudos to you for the wealth of information packed into this piece....Thanks very much...
History was never like this at school. I read and learn in total enjoyment.
Finally I read this immensely informative long poem which to me as a writer in English and student of English Literature is very valuable in its historic context and otherwise too.It took me time as I want to assimilate all that you have so painstakingly tried to simplify. I wonder if I had opted for Linguistics in my masters program they would have taught us all this. As another poet has mentioned which only supports what you have delineated, a language which is open and absorbs words from other languages is alive, and thrives, by enriching itself , also showing tolerance. Raj, DU has a department of Romance and Germanic languages. Incidently I met the head a few weeks ago at a reading session organised by Italian cultural center in Delhi. It was a mind blowing reading from ancient Italian texts, modern Indian poets and Italian poets. Thanks Raj. Do you mind if I save it for future reference... Regards Mamta
when I first came to england i was surprised to see that there was infact two english language spoken One nordic based and another, amongst the educated classes latin based
wow!!! Great work..it's wonderful!!!!
Thank you for sharing Raj, lots to assimilate here.
Masterly exposition based on meticulous research. Sir but the story is not finished yet as English spreads and diversifies into localised dialects. Words chang their original meanings and come to mean exacts opposites. Youthful slang when evil means good etc The beauty of the english language is its capability of absorbing words from other languages untramelled by rigid rules of gender and grammar A living language is bound to change and adjust to prevailing needs and circumstances or become a frozen relic of a dead past like latin. ivor
Raj, am totally bewildered and filled with awe how you manage to put all this together, for I have come here twice, and as this needs to be read slowly, to fully appreciate with patience, which as a poet you deserve, I am reading it in instalments. It's so fascinating as it unfolds and enriches te mind. The best perhaps I can do is to take a print out. I came as far as Dark ages of Britain'. I'LL POST A COMMENT AFTER FINISHING IT NOW. thanks
You have through this poem, I think, dear Sir, added yet another wonderful feather to this wonderful language...the journey of the English brook from high up in the unknown mountains to the Mighty Sea of English has been very meticulously and beautifully traced here...My salutations to you for this wonderful work ...tfs
Brilliant in research and presentation...I agree with all before me and send applause for this very fine work of poetic artistry. Dorothy A Poet Who Loves To Sing
This is a well-researched, meticulously organized, and impressively penned compendium of the history of the English language. It reflects the extent of genuine interest, passion, hard work, and patience as well as the excellent communication skills of this great writer. It is as profound in richness and content as the English language itself. As I always say, such literary work will be a great boon to all readers in general and to the student community in particular. "Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone." So said Ralph Waldo Emerson. And we can see from this write how the magnificent edifice of the English language has been built over the years. Now in a lighter vein, here is an anonymously written quote: "English is a funny language; that explains why we park our car on the driveway and drive our car on the parkway."
Simply this work epitomizes the extraordinary strength of your knowledge. I am quite eager to read another historic poem from you... pukka work..cheers from Sri Lanka
Wide range of study as a scholar. A historical background of forming a language in a nutshell. Manly contribution. Its the advantage of cyber technology, just pushing a button we can have our knowledge today and the creative person like you makes this path much easy to move on. Many...many thanks for such great work dedicated to the contemporary learners and of the future. A big time reflected through a mirror...Thank you very much again.
When I saw the name of Beowulf in this part, my heart leaps up!! It feels as if I were at study again in Jakarta. It is far more interesting than the lectures I ever had! It really is a treat, and I thank you for this pleasure, RAJ!
Thank you dear Readers for your kind comments & the patience displayed to know the lesser known facts of the Story of English Language & Literature ! Our member Deeptangshu is doing his Masters in English Literature from St. Stephens College in Delhi ! Grateful for his comments too ! Thank you Readers , -Raj
As usual, quite enriching, educational and poetic. Quite often it happens that as students of literature, we tend to focus more on theoretical analysis and criticism while tending to ignore historical backgrounds and factual details. So your poems become handy in such a situation.
I am so immersed in this analysis venture. Educational.
wow! a poem of epic proportions indeed Raj on the language itself...the poem takes in the hole sweep of English, English Literature and its history al lin one beautiful sweep...
whew..what a great piece indeed Raj,,I was empty, and now, I am full with all this words of knowledge from you.Thanks, Raj!!
A monumental work! Very very interesting. But the problem for people like me with a bit poor eye sight is to read long texts on Computer moniter..no problem..I love this work...and wish to see it in the shape of a book.
simply great Raj
From the beginning this epic devoted to the origin of language in England is completely absorbing dear Raj. Your research has been extensive therefore readers know better the role of historical characters in it's development. Fascinating facts about English poetry and prose will be of great interest to the bards among us today who love recitation. Grateful thanks for posting this marvellous epic.
An amazing labyrinth of facts have you unearthed for this epic work... how interesting to learn of the origin of words we often take for granted...
Raj, I found this a most interesting poem, the depth of your research must have been immense. I thank you for the knowledge you have shared with us. I loved the poetic flow of your introduction, it had a lovely rythmn and led me excited to read the rest.
Your story flows elegantly with its rhythmic music and dance. A great feast of knowledge too. Thank you for sharing it.
greatly indebted to you
Your research work and poetic skill deserves applause!